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10-06-2008, 04:11 PM
A Short History of Bahrain
A SHORT HISTORY OF BAHRAIN
Bahrain has been a center for Middle Eastern trade for centuries. The island was the sight of the ancient Dilmun civilization dating back nearly 4,000 years. The land of Dilmun, an ancient name for Bahrain, is considered a contemporary of the Biblical city of Ur in Mesopotamia (what is now southern Iraq). Between 4,000 and 2,000 BC Bahrain flourished as a trading center, Ancient s and tablets refer to a place with abundant fresh water, "two days south of Mesopotamia following the wind."
Early religions also venerated Bahrain. There are legends of a place where people lived as immortals, where the gods chose to dwell, where lions did not devour men and wolves did not rend lambs. These legends are all thought to describe the Dilmun civilization on the island of Bahrain.
Bahrain’s fortunes as a trading nation rose and fell as surrounding empires were established and conquered. Aryans, Assyrians, Babylonians, the Greeks of Alexander, Romans, Selucids and Persians all claimed sovereignty over the islands at one time or another between 2000 BC and 700 AD. In nearly every case, Bahrain seems to have suffered a temporary economic loss followed by renewed status as a center of trade.
As Arabian civilization rose and flourished from the profits of frankincense and myrrh (aromatic gum resin obtained from several trees and shrubs used for incense): Bahrain continued as a maritime nation, its dhows plying the waters of the Arabian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman, the North Arabian Sea, the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. Pearls, gems of the sea, contributed to the island nation’s growth, as Bahraini divers plunged as deep as 75 feet below the waters of the Arabian Gulf to gather their opalescent harvest.
Arab civilization flowered again about 600 AD with the teachings of the Prophet Mohammed. His teachings, later compiled into the Koran, became the cornerstone of Arab religion and culture.
As a major trade center in the Arabian Gulf, Bahrain helped spread Mohammed’s teaching, Arab merchants and sailors carried their religion and culture as far east as Indonesia and as far west as Spain. From the 11th to the 15th centuries, Bahrain carried on an intense maritime trade between India and Mesopotamia.
Early in the 16th century, Portugal expanded her maritime trade routes around Africa and as far east as India. Realizing that control of the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Aden was dependent on control of the Omani coastline, the island of Socotra, and the strait of Hormuz, Portugal, in 1515 dispatched Alfonso de Albuquerque to capture Hormuz from the Shah of Persia. Increased taxation by Persia to pay tribute to the Portuguese, led to a Bahraini revolt. Portugal was swift to suppress the rebellious state, capturing the island in 1521. The Portuguese maintained control over Bahrain for more than 80 years, successfully defending it against incursions from the Ottoman Turkish empire to the north and the Persians to the east. Today the remains of the Qalaat al-Bahrain, better known as the Portuguese fort, are a popular tourist attraction on the island.
Early in the 17th century, a series of inner-governmental rivalries led to the murders of several prominent Bahrainis including the governor himself. Fearing Portuguese retaliation, Bahrain pled for protection from the Shah of Persia who was only too happy to oblige. Thus ousted, the Portuguese spent another 80 years attempting to regain their control over the island.
In 1783 Sheikh Ahmed Al-Fatih "The Conqueror" drove the Persian garrison from Bahrain and reclaimed the Al-Khalifa family’s title to the island. The Al-Khalifa family continues to rule Bahrain to this day.
In 1820 Sheikh Ahmed’s sons Abdulla and Salman, then co-rulers of Bahrain, signed a General Treaty with the British East India Company, beginning a connection to Great Britain which lasted until Bahrain’s independence in 1971. When Sheikh Salman died in 1825, a struggle for succession began. This internal strife continued with rival factions maneuvering for control of the government, and assassinations rife, for more than 40 years. During this turbulent period a "Treaty of Perpetual Peace and Friendship" was signed with the British to end maritime aggression and build better trade relations. The treaty was seen by the rival internal factions as a means to secure their own power by enlisting British aid against the other faction in the continuing struggle for control of the Bahraini government. The struggle eventually reached a head in 1869 when the exasperated British simply removed and exiled the primary rivals and proclaimed the 21 year old Sheikh Isa bin Ali Al-Khalifa the ruler of Bahrain. Sheikh Isa acted quickly and decisively to stabilize the government and, with the support of the British fleet, held off invasion by the Turks and the Persians, both of who claimed Bahrain as their own.
Sheikh Isa guided his nation into the 20th century, ruling until 1923 when his son, Sheikh Hamad, joined him as co-ruler.
The oil hidden in the sands was nothing new to the Arabs. For thousands of years they had used the surface up-welling of natural tar to caulk their dhows. In the mid-19th century, oil gained considerable value. Suddenly petroleum based oils and oil distillates could be used to lubricate and power a whole new generation of machines. Gradually the world began to search out its oil reserves.
In the late 1920’s, Standard Oil Company of California received permission from the Sheikhdom of Bahrain to exploit Bahraini oil reserves through its subsidiary, the Bahrain Petroleum Company (BAPCO). Drilling began on the first well in October 1931. On June 1, 1932, at a depth of 2,008 feet, the well hit pay dirt and the oil flowed. Its 70-ton per day natural flow was said to be an oil-man’s dream come true.
Sheikh Hamad succeeded his father in December 1932 and was succeeded by his own son, Sheikh Salman ten years later.
In 1961, Sheikh Salman passed away at his country house near West Rifa. He was succeeded by his son, Sheikh Isa bin Salman Al-Khalifa, who passed away in February of 1999. His son, His Highness Sheikh Hamad bin Isa Al-Khalifa, is the present Amir.
Militarily, Bahrain served as a British base during World War II. In the 1950’s nationalism in the region grew and in 1968 Britain announced its intention to end the treaty with the gulf states (Bahrain, Qatar and what is now the U.A.E.). On August 15 1971, the island received independence, becoming the State of Bahrain under the leadership of His Highness, the Amir.
Today Bahrain is a thriving, modern nation of over 4000,000 people. Like the nation it is part of, the capital of Manama is an international metropolis of over 100,000; a city which combines the heritage of the merchant past with the modern, glass and steel of the future. The people of Bahrain are proud of their heritage, they honor values of righteousness, valor and hospitality; the values born of the struggle for survival in the desert. They are values common to the cultures of both America and Bahrain.
Oil remains Bahrain’s primary export commodity having supplanted the pearling industry. Rising oil prices in the 1970’s, which gave added wealth to all oil producing nations, have settled out forcing some slow-downs on government planned improvements.
The Bahraini government maintains its considerable foresight in planning. Bahrain has long billed itself as the Gulf’s "oil poor" neighbor. The Bahraini oil reserves are small and by all estimates will not last out the decade. The government, anticipating the day when the oil will be gone, has diversified its investments, stimulating banking and financial interests, major multinational corporations and again making the island nation of Bahrain, as in millennia past, a vital center of world trade.
Bahraini Traditions and Etiquette
TRADITIONS
"To know a country is to know its’ people"
In the harsh, arid desert, a man alone soon dies. Life is possible only with the help and support of others; and at that it is often a struggle just to carry on. This environment of the Middle East has been a contributing factor in the development of closely-knit extended families, each member dependent on the others for his or her survival; and it refined the need for hospitality, for without the support of a group, the individual alone will surely die in the desert.
In the Middle East, a person’s first duty is to his extended family, parents, grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, even distant kinsmen. Community and country come only after the needs of the family. For this reason, any needy person who has relatives, no matter how remotely connected, can be sure of food and ter. When sons marry, they often continue to live at home or in an adjacent home. Consequently, it is not unusual for several generations to live together or in a very close proximity.
The extended family is usually headed by the oldest male. Together, the extended family traditionally shares the responsibility for the actions of each of its members. Family enterprises and skills are often handed down from generation to generation. As elsewhere in the world, social patterns are changing, especially in the cities. Families are becoming more scattered but the bonds remain very strong.
These dual traditions of the extended family and of generous hospitality have been carried down through generations of Middle Easterners. The Bahraini people inherited this culture, strongly influenced by their desert ancestry. In Bahrain, and throughout the Middle East, the extended family is a closely knit group. The ties are much tighter and deeper than those same ties generally are in most American families.
Similarly, hospitality is a byword among Bahrainis, whatever their station in life. When they say, as they often do, "my home is your home," they mean it. As a guest in their homes, you will be treated to the kindest and most lavish consideration, but do not be surprised if family members come first when being served, greeted, or introduced. You may even seem to move backward in a serving line. Such is the tremendous importance of extended family, an important cultural difference to understand.
The Tradition of Marriage
The Holy Koran permits a man to have up to four wives, but only if he is capable of treating them all equally in every way. Not surprisingly, that is a difficult condition to meet. As a consequence, polygamy is a declining practice today throughout the Middle East. If asked, most Muslims will cheerfully admit that they cannot afford more than one wife.
"Among my followers," said Mohammed, "The best of men are they who are best to their wives; the best of women are they who are best to their husbands."
A Muslim woman cannot legally be forced to marry. In certain circumstances, she can obtain a divorce from her husband through the courts, but only in exceptional cases.
Islam does not permit a Muslim woman to marry a non-Muslim, although Muslim men may marry women of other faiths. The non-Muslim wife of a Muslim may keep her religion, but the children of such a marriage must be brought up as Muslims and they are considered the father’s children, not the mother’s.
Muslim women inherit a fixed amount of the family estates and are free to control their own private wealth. Protected traditionally from association with men outside their own family circles, Muslim women are gradually being permitted to fill a greater role in society, especially in the larger cities and among the better educated.
Bahraini Etiquette:
A foreign visitor should prepare himself to shake hands frequently, perhaps several times a day with the same person. It is important to know that the handshake in the Middle East is generally a light clasp of the fingers and can be held until the extended greetings are complete.
You will also find that conversations are held at much closer distances than you may be used to. In the U.S. people tend to stand several feet apart when they talk to one another. In the Middle East, people in conversation stand closer together. You may find yourself backing away while the person you are speaking to steps closer and closer. Though you may be somewhat uncomfortable until you are used to this custom, it is polite to hold your ground.
The familiar clash on the back or shoulder is not the custom in Bahrain and is better avoided. People might take offense if you strike, push, or jostle them.
Bahrainis are exceptionally courteous and exchange a variety of polite phrases of greeting, good wishes, and farewell. Learning a few of these polite phrases in Arabic will do wonders. Such courtesy will always be appreciated, and everyone is complimented.
Throughout the Middle East the financial burden lies with the host. If you invite someone to lunch or dinner, you should be prepared to "pick up the tab." The concept of separated checks or "going dutch" is very uncommon in the Middle East.
When invited to a Bahraini’s Home:
Bahrainis are very worldly. When you and your family are invited to a Bahraini’s home, you may find yourselves in the traditional setting or in a completely familiar western setting. Whatever the case, as guests of a Bahraini family, you will enjoy the finest they have to offer. A tempting array of dishes - perhaps roast lamb, fish, chicken; mounds of spiced rice, savory sauces, fruits, and desserts. Feel free to take second helpings. It is not only permissible, but your host will consider it a compliment if you do.
Traditionally the host will assign the places to sit, and hand shaking is quite proper upon entering, and is optional upon leaving. Offers of peace and polite small-talk generally comprise the greeting. Do not be surprised if you host does not introduce his wife and daughters. In a traditional setting, women often remain separate. It is polite to inquire about the health or welfare of the "family" rather than directly about female members of the family.
There is an old custom in the Middle East that an object admired by a guest becomes a gift. It is a good idea to be careful with your admiration as your host may feel compelled to give you the object either on the spot or by delivering it to you later.
It is the province of the host to open the subject or topic of conversation. As a guest, a westerner may or may not be required to remove his shoes. All the diners remain seated until the host rises.
As mentioned earlier, it is impolite to use the left hand to eat or when offering, passing, or receiving anything. Also, it is impolite to speak of anything regarded as unclean by a Muslim. Accordingly, dogs, pigs, shoes, or the mention of anything in-elegant, such as a donkey, garbage, etc., would be considered improper topics for conversation and should be avoided.
Bahrain is a tea and coffee drinking country. Coffee is placed in copper coffee pots and often flavored with the spice cardamom. The Bahrainis drink it slowly, savoring the rich aroma and flavor. The coffee is served in small cups, slightly larger than a demitasse. The strength of the coffee varies.
Hospitality requires that coffee be served to a guest on all occasions. When it is offered, it must be accepted. The third cup is the extreme limit. Refuse the forth cup by shaking the cup horizontally form side-to-side.
Heavily sweetened tea with cream, called "chia" (pronounced "shy"), is another traditional Middle Eastern drink. The sweet tea may also be clear with a sprig of fresh mint. It is polite to accept one or two glasses of tea. The glasses are very small. Tea is almost always served hot. Iced tea is a rarity.
TABOOS
At Prayer time. During prayer time you will occasionally see people in public engaged in prayer. As mentioned earlier, a Muslim engaged in "salat" may be standing, kneeling, or prostrate. If you must pass a person who is praying. It is courteous to pass behind or by the feet of the worshiper.
Conversation: According to Arab custom it is the host’s privilege to set the topic of conversation. Also, the Arabic is poetic and pleasant to listen to. Taking time to enjoy a conversation is a tradition which has resulted, thus, when speaking with an Arab, it is considered impolite to appear impatient or in haste. Doing so means you don’t care about the person or you can’t control yourself. Most conversations start with a wish for peace, (Asalamu Al-Akum) and proceed to small talk, "how are you?" and "How is your family?" before getting down to the business at hand.
Politics and religion are best left alone. Generally Arabs will not debate the Islamic religion, though many are happy to explain their religion to non-Muslims who are genuinely interested. If, while you’re talking, an Arab changes the subject or appears uncomfortable, then it’s a good idea to follow the lead and talk about something else.
The Sole of the foot: Life the left hand, the sole of the foot is considered unclean because it touches the ground. It is considered impolite to point the sole of the foot at an Arab when sitting together. This does not mean that when sitting people cannot cross their legs. The custom is more applicable when sitting on cushions or mats at a traditional Arabic feast. Then, if seated with legs extended, the soles of the feet could point at another guest and cause insult. Generally, Arabs kneel or sit cross-legged at traditional dinners.
Right hand/left hand: In most Arab countries, the left hand is considered "unclean" and is not put forward (an important thing for al "south-paws" to know.) The left hand earned this interesting epithet in the harsh desert, a land of few trees and no paper. It was the custom to eat, shake hands, wave a greeting, all with the right hand while the left hand was reserved for certain "hygienic functions" or blowing the nose. (The left hand was cleaned by rubbing in the sand). For some desert nomads, this is still the way of things. Traditionally at meals the left hand is kept hidden in the folds of the robe.
Today it is extremely impolite to offer the left hand for a hand shake or to wave a greeting as this implies rubbing the "unhygienic residue" of the left hand on the person being waved to. Similarly, it is impolite to pass food or eat with the left hand. When eating and drinking, use your right hand. Use your right hand also when you pass, offer or receive anything. As an interesting note, throughout the tales of the "1,000 and One Arabian Nights" enemies are referred to as "They of the Left Hand."
Affection in Public: In most Arab countries, holding hands, kissing, walking arm-in-arm, and even flirting between men and women in public (even between husband and wife), is strictly TABOO! In Bahrain such behavior generally results in "dirty looks" from passersby. In some countries within this theater of operations, such behavior can result in arrest and imprisonment.
Conversely, holding hands, kissing, and walking arm-in-arm, between Arab men, is considered perfectly acceptable behavior. While there may be "something more" to it, such activities are generally little more than signs of friendship (much as the kiss on the cheek in France.)
Hand Gestures: By and large Bahrain is cosmopolitan enough that most of its inhabitants have been exposed to Western ways. Still, there are several hand gestures used in the U.S. which could have a different meaning if used in the Middle East. There are the "thumbs up", "peace (or victory), and the "okay" signs.
Thumbs up, meaning "everything is great" or "I’m Okay" to the West can be equated to the "middle finger" by Middle Easterners. Of note, hitch-hikers do not "thumb a ride", rather they hold their hand horizontal to the road and wave it up and down as though telling motorists to "reduce *****sss".
Peace or the victory sign is generally understood when the pads of the fingers are pointed away form the person making the sign (in other words, palm out.) When the sign is made with the knuckles facing away from the person making the sign (palm in) the sign may be taken for a "devil sign" or "the middle finger extended."
Okay, the circle made with the thumb and index finger, the other three fingers extended can be misunderstood to be the sign of "the evil eye"
Finally , it is interesting to compare the way Americans and Arabs count on their fingers (as a trivial example of how our cultures differ). Generally, Americans start with the index finger calling it "one". Two, three, and four are the remaining fingers, with the thumb popping up last as number five. Arabs generally start with the "pinky" finger as number "one" counting down through the fingers until the thumb again is five.
Pork and Pork Products: the Koran forbids Muslims to touch or eat pork or the products of swine. It is possible that this originated in an effort to protect people from contracting diseases that resulted from eating tainted or contaminated pork products.
Many food products available in the Middle East today carry the disclaimer "certified free of pig products". This is an important consideration if you host a Bahraini family for a meal.
Photography: Many Muslims Don’t like to be photographed. If you really want that picture to remember the interesting local fashions, ask before you photograph. Photographing a person without asking first is considered very offensive. Generally just raising your camera will be enough to be sure, If people in the background "scurry and dodge" to get away, it'’ a good idea to wait.
Bahrain does not permit photography in some areas. Don’t take pictures of military installations, equipment, police officials, airports or sea ports (unless you have permission from someone in authority). Joe Dokes, the pier sentry doesn’t cut it as "someone in authority", by the way.
Islam
THE RELIGION
The predominant religion of the Bahraini’s (and in most of the Middle East) is Islam. It is a religion with nearly 800 million followers throughout the world, about 1/5 of the world’s population.
The work "Islam" is Arabic and means "Submission to God". People who follow the Islamic religion are called "Muslims" which is also Arabic and means "Those who submit".
Many Muslims view Christians and Jews, not as enemies, but as people who have yet to recognize Mohammed and move up to the next stage of belief, Islam. This might be equated to the Mormon belief that Joseph Smith is one of god’s prophets and his teachings are a higher plane of belief.
Islam does not have "churches" per se, rather holy places where the faithful may pray to God. These buildings are called Mosques. Because part of a Muslim’s duty is to pray five times each day, it would be very difficult to stop all work, find the nearest church (in the Christian sense), pray, and go back to his place of work. For this reason, Mosques are plentiful. Thus people may express their devotion to god, without spending a disproportionate amount of time finding a place to do so.
Mosques, like most holy places, are generally built on a specific pattern. Most recognizable are their tall spire-like structures called "minarets." In ancient times, the "muezzin," "men who call the faithful to prayer) sand the call to prayer from the tops of the minarets five times each day. Modern technology has largely replaced the muezzin today in the form of electronic speakers and sometimes tape recordings.
While Islam does not restrict mosques to Muslims only, in deference to regional sensitivities, the military precludes non-Muslim personnel from entering them with the exception of the Grand Mosque. Photography is normally not permitted within a Mosque (Grand Mosque excepted) and if you and your family are Muslim, you are welcome to enter and pray in accordance with the Koran.
MAJOR ISLAMIC BELIEFS
There are six basic tenants of Islam. These are: one God, God’s Prophets, Sacred Books, Man’s relations with God, Angels and other spirits, and the Day of Judgement.
One God: Islam is a monotheistic religion, there is only God. This is stated on every occasion of worship with the phrase: "There is not God, but Allah." The work "Allah" is Arabic for God. God created everything that "is". Because God is omnipotent, thanks, praise, and obedience should be given to God alone.
God’s Prophets: Muslims believe that God speaks through Prophets here on Earth. The first of God’s prophets was Adam and the last was Mohammed. Contrary to popular belief, Islam does not deny the existence of Jesus Christ. Muslims recognize Jesus as one of five major prophets (just as Hebrews revere Jesus as a Rabbi) but not as the Son of God. Abraham, Moses, David, and of course, Mohammed, believed to be the last prophet, are also considered Major Prophets. While the prophets transmit the word of god, they themselves are not considered divine. As an interesting side-note, Jesus Christ is mentioned many times in the Koran while Mohammed is mentioned only twice.
Sacred Books: the Islamic holy book is called the Koran and is the written word of God (Allah) as revealed in Arabic to the Prophet Mohammed by the Angel Gabriel. Just as Jesus did not write of his life on Earth (that testament was left to the gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John), so the Koran was not written by Mohammed, rather by his followers, some years after his death.
As it reflects the word of God, Muslims consider the Koran complete and unflawed; thus a great deal of Arab culture revolves around the word of god as revealed in the Koran.
Muslims also believe God gave four other sacred scriptures to man. These scriptures include: the scrolls given to Abraham, the Jewish Torah, the Psalms of David, and the gospels according to Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.
Man’s Relations With God: Muslims believe that man occupies the most honored place in all creation. They do not believe in the original sin, rather that Adam and Eve together, touched a tree which God had forbidden them to touch, sinned equally, repented, and were forgiven for their sin of disobedience. Knowledge and the pursuit of knowledge is desirable and good. Man alone among the animals has the power to make moral choices and to respond consciously to God’s will.
Angels and Other Spirits: Muslims believe in a spiritual world as well as the real world here on Earth. The spiritual world is inhabited by Angels and by other spirits (often referred to as Jinn"). Angels are God’s messengers, they carry his word to man, much as the archangel Gabriel carried god’s words to Mohammed. The other spirits, Jinn, may be either helpful or harmful to humans.
The Day of Judgement: Just as the Book of Revelations tells about the coming of the day of judgement, so the Koran tells Muslims of a day when every soul will be judged. At this judgement, sometimes called the Day of Resurrection, souls wil be judged and assigned to their place in heaven or hell dependent on their works during life.
BRANCHES OF ISLAM
When the Prophet Mohammed died without sons in 632 AD, he left his followers without a leader or successor. Mohammed’s son-in-law (and cousin) Ali proclaimed himself the Caliph (the leader of both religious and secular affairs) by right of descent from the line of Mohammed. The followers of Ali, those who believed that the Caliphate was a right of descent, were called Shiat-Ali (meaning Partisans of Ali) though the same was later shortened to "Shi’ites".
A second group of Muslims, the Sunnis, believed the Caliph should be chosen for his own merit, such as intelligence, ability to lead and defend the faithful, and his knowledge of Islam. Thus, the Sunnis opposed the right of descent, and supported Mohammed’s friend Abu Bakr, the general who led the Muslim army to capture Mecca.
Through the Shi’ites claimed that Mohammed had designated Ali as his successor, historians dispute the claim. Had the Prophet done so, the people would have accepted his wishes without question. Understandably, with no successor named and without a male heir, a power struggle between the two factions ensued.
The Sunnis prevailed and Abu Bakr was elected Caliph. The Shi’ite faction refused to give up and continued the struggle until, after three unsuccessful campaigns, Ali was finally named Caliph in 655 AD.
Ali was considered an indecisive and ineffectual leader who was outmaneuvered by the Umayyad family who replaced him with Muawiyah and moved the Caliphate from Medina to Damascus. When Ali was assassinated in 661 AD his first-born son, Hasan, refused the Caliphate in favor of his younger brother, Ali’s second son, Hussein. Hussein raised an army to challenge the Umayyad caliphate. On the tenth day of the month of Muharram (first month of the Islamic year) in the year 680 AD, Hussein and his forces and members of his Hashemite family went to war against Caliph Yazid. Hussein and his Shi’a forces met the Caliph’s army outside the Iraqi city of Karbela where they were resoundingly defeated. The Shi’ites claim Hussein, himself, was the last man to die in the battle, which claimed the lives of his two nephews and his own five year-old son. Shi’a hopes for a hereditary succession died with him but the Shi’ite sect did not.
Today approximately 85 percent of all Muslims are Sunnis with the remaining 15 percent Shi’ite. Sunni beliefs continue to follow the "sunna" or "path of the Prophet," focusing on Mohammed’s words and actions as a guide to proper life and conduct.
Shi’ites, on the other hand, believe in the spiritual leader, or Imam, who is divinely inspired, thus the spiritual descendent of Mohammed. They believe in the Imam as a religious leader, selected by God; while the Caliph is the secular leader, chosen as a defender of the faithful and enforcer of god’s law (the Sharia).
TEN DAYS IN MUHARRAM - ASHURA
The Muslim festival of "Ashura" falls on the day that is the alent to the 10th of Muharram. This Shi’ite festival commemorates the battle between Hussein and Caliph Yazid.
Bahrain is one of the few remaining sites where, each year on the 10th of Muharram, Shi’ite Muslims can gather to mourn the death of Hussein and religiously atone for his defeat. The occasion also serves an opportunity for Shi’ite Muslims to restate the importance of the family as the center of their faith. For nine days preceding the drama and procession known as "Ashura", the Shi’ite faithful (about 60 percent of Bahrain’s population) gather in their villages to hear stories of Hussein and other Muslim heroes, and to prepare for the festival. In the late evenings, they come to Manama and march to the main Shi’a mosque. Beating their chests with their cupped hands and forearms, the worshipers add to the already mournful sounds of their music and chanting as they prepare for the final ceremony.
On the evening before, and on the morning of, the 10th of Muharram, thousands of Shi’ite Muslims will again be procession on the streets of downtown Manama. On this day, from about 0830 until about 1400, Shi’a men will march in their village groups through Manama, beating their chest, but also now flagellating their backs with copper chains and striking and cutting their foreheads with swords. Various symbols of the Battles of Karbela are carried along with models of the tombs of Ali and his sons, Hasan and Hussein, thus creating a dance-line and a dramatic re-enactment of an intensely personal and religious event for Shi’ite Muslims.
Non-Muslims should avoid Manama at this time. If, however, you find yourself in a position to view the festival you should do it from the roof or window of a home. Remember, however, that any non-Muslim is an outsider and that the worshipers will be in a highly emotional state. Any gesture which could be construed by the faithful as being disrespectful may result in serious trouble. Picture taking is absolutely forbidden.
RAMADAN
Ramadan is the ninth month of the Muslim lunar year and is a month of fasting as required by "siyam". During the holy month of Ramadan, Muslims are required to abstain from food, drink, smoking, , and any other bodily gratification from pre-dawn to sunset. Children, those who are ill, persons engaged in the rigors of travel, pregnant women, and women who are menstruating are excused from the fast, but are enjoined to make up the fast at a later time when they are more able.
Traditionally, the fast begins each day at dawn. Poetically, this time is determined when one can tell the difference between a black thread and a white thread held at arm’s length. The fast is broken at sunset, (again according to the poet, when the different colors of the threads cannot be discerned).
In Bahrain, a cannon is fired to the faithful to the arrival of dawn and the commencement of the fast. Another cannon is fired at sunset to inform the faithful that the fast can be broken.
The breading of the fast is generally a time of quiet when families gather together or join with close friends for a few hours. People retire early and arise again around 0230 or 0300, to take a second meal just before sunrise.
In some sections of Bahrain, a man will walk the streets before dawn, beating a drum to remind people to awaken and eat before the morning comes. The first call to prayer (and the cannon) then officially begin the day’s fast.
The last ten days of Ramadan are especially sacred to Muslims because it was during this period that the Prophet Mohammed began to receive the revelations from Allah (God) which resulted in the Holy Koran. During this last ten days, each Muslim is supposed to have already read 2/3 of the Koran and continue to completion, or to read the entire Koran over the 10 day period.
The end of Ramadan signals a time of festivities for all Muslims. Many cannons are fired, people dance, and friends offer each other the traditional greeting: "Eid Mubarak," (may your feast be blessed).
During the three day period of Eid Al-Fatr. It is appropriate to send "Eid Mubarak" cards to you Muslim friends. Such cards are much akin to Christmas cards.
Ramadan, which is similar in many ways to the Christian Lent, helps to remind a Muslim of his dependence upon god and lends a sense of unity to the Muslim community. It is obvious, therefore, that we should respect this tradition and do nothing which might cause offense- such as eating, drinking, chewing gum, or smoking in public.
Because a Muslim man or woman must work a full day without a bite to eat or a drink of water, Ramadan can be especially tiring. You should be particularly careful to deal sensitively with whatever everyday problems or inconveniences arise.
FIVE PILLARS OF THE ISLAMIC FAITH
There are five "pillars" which are considered the foundations of the Islamic faith. These five pillars, duties which each Muslim must perform, are: "shahadah", or confession of faith; "salat", or worship: "zakat", or wealth sharing: "siyam", or fasting: and "hajj", or pilgrimage. These five pillars are important parts of a Muslim’s life. Each must be followed just as mass and confession must be observed by a Catholic.
"Shahadah": the confession of faith, is a Muslim’s expression of his faith to God. This expression of faith is made by reciting the first lines of the Holy Koran: "There is no God, but God and Mohammed is the prophet of God." This intonation is a Muslim’s passport into the Muslim community, the essence of his faith, and his identify, all in one. Muslims repeat this confession of their faith many times daily both in prayers and for other occasions.
"Salat": worship at five set times each day is an important religious duty and is closely observed by Muslims. Muslims must perform ablution (washing of the body, preferably in running water, but at the very least symbolically) to prepare to approach God’s presence. In this same light, a prayer rug is used to insure the ground on which a Muslim worships is clean. The Salat differs from prayer in that it is "worship" of God, while "prayer" implies asking God’s blessing, His Help, His forgiveness. Accordingly, salat is a very exacting form of worship. If Muslims fail to accomplish the Salat (or to make up a missed worship) they cease to be Muslims. When performing Salat a Muslim must face Mecca, perform specific ritual stances (bowing, genuflection, prostration), and speak the worship liturgy. Salat may be done alone or in congregation all days except noon on Friday, when it must be accomplished in congregation if at all possible.
"Zakat": is the sharing of wealth. Muslims are required to give at least 2.5 percent of their assets to the poor. While zakat is akin to the ‘tithe’ of some Christian churches or making an offering to the collection plate in others, it is more. Zakat is levied as a tax that is paid by all Muslims and is used to help those less fortunate than themselves.
"Siyam": is the fast which each Muslim must make during the Holy month of Ramadan (the ninth month of the Islamic calendar). During Ramadan Muslims must not eat, drink, smoke, or have ual intercourse between dawn and sunset.
"Hajj": the pilgrimage to Mecca is a requirement each Muslim must fulfill at least once in his or her lifetime it the are able. Mecca is the birthplace of the Prophet Mohammed. As such, it is the most holy city in Islam. It is located in western Saudi Arabia and is a city open only to Muslims. The time of the pilgrimage is during the final month of the Islamic calendar year or "Dhu Al-Hijjah".
When they arrive in the vicinity of Mecca, pilgrims perform a complete ablution: replace their clothing with two white linen cloths, one for their lower body and one for the upper; and abstain from cutting their hair or finger nails from this point until their pilgrimage is completed. In this way each pilgrim is as his brother before the eyes of God, there is no distinction of class, wealth, knowledge, or piety. The pilgrimage takes several days and requires visits to the Ka’bah (the first house of worship built by Abraham) in the center of Mecca; a visit to the hills of Safa and Marwah where, at God’s command, Hagar, Abraham’s wife, sought water for her son, Ishmael; a visit to the plain of Arafat where Mohammed delivered his farewell sermon; a visit to Mina, an oasis where pilgrims throw stones at three pillars which symbolize Satan and where pilgrims make a ritual sacrifice of a goat or sheep. This feast of the sacrifice, "Eid Al-adha" is the high point of the pilgrimage. Following this, pilgrims may cut their hair and fingernails, and don their ordinary clothing. They must make a final visit to the Ka’bah and their pilgrimage is complete. Those who have completed the Hajj are held in very high esteem among their peers.
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Egypt. Greater Cairo consists of two metropolitan governorates (local government administrative areas): Cairo, on the east bank of the Nile; and Giza, across the river, and the river islands of Gezira and Roda. The population of Greater Cairo is about 15,000,000.
Cairo is part of the Nile Valley and Delta, one of the few parts of the country that has fertile soil and plentiful water. The Nile River divides into two channels just north of the city. Huge deserts lie east and west of the ci
A SHORT HISTORY OF BAHRAIN
Bahrain has been a center for Middle Eastern trade for centuries. The island was the sight of the ancient Dilmun civilization dating back nearly 4,000 years. The land of Dilmun, an ancient name for Bahrain, is considered a contemporary of the Biblical city of Ur in Mesopotamia (what is now southern Iraq). Between 4,000 and 2,000 BC Bahrain flourished as a trading center, Ancient s and tablets refer to a place with abundant fresh water, "two days south of Mesopotamia following the wind."
Early religions also venerated Bahrain. There are legends of a place where people lived as immortals, where the gods chose to dwell, where lions did not devour men and wolves did not rend lambs. These legends are all thought to describe the Dilmun civilization on the island of Bahrain.
Bahrain’s fortunes as a trading nation rose and fell as surrounding empires were established and conquered. Aryans, Assyrians, Babylonians, the Greeks of Alexander, Romans, Selucids and Persians all claimed sovereignty over the islands at one time or another between 2000 BC and 700 AD. In nearly every case, Bahrain seems to have suffered a temporary economic loss followed by renewed status as a center of trade.
As Arabian civilization rose and flourished from the profits of frankincense and myrrh (aromatic gum resin obtained from several trees and shrubs used for incense): Bahrain continued as a maritime nation, its dhows plying the waters of the Arabian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman, the North Arabian Sea, the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. Pearls, gems of the sea, contributed to the island nation’s growth, as Bahraini divers plunged as deep as 75 feet below the waters of the Arabian Gulf to gather their opalescent harvest.
Arab civilization flowered again about 600 AD with the teachings of the Prophet Mohammed. His teachings, later compiled into the Koran, became the cornerstone of Arab religion and culture.
As a major trade center in the Arabian Gulf, Bahrain helped spread Mohammed’s teaching, Arab merchants and sailors carried their religion and culture as far east as Indonesia and as far west as Spain. From the 11th to the 15th centuries, Bahrain carried on an intense maritime trade between India and Mesopotamia.
Early in the 16th century, Portugal expanded her maritime trade routes around Africa and as far east as India. Realizing that control of the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Aden was dependent on control of the Omani coastline, the island of Socotra, and the strait of Hormuz, Portugal, in 1515 dispatched Alfonso de Albuquerque to capture Hormuz from the Shah of Persia. Increased taxation by Persia to pay tribute to the Portuguese, led to a Bahraini revolt. Portugal was swift to suppress the rebellious state, capturing the island in 1521. The Portuguese maintained control over Bahrain for more than 80 years, successfully defending it against incursions from the Ottoman Turkish empire to the north and the Persians to the east. Today the remains of the Qalaat al-Bahrain, better known as the Portuguese fort, are a popular tourist attraction on the island.
Early in the 17th century, a series of inner-governmental rivalries led to the murders of several prominent Bahrainis including the governor himself. Fearing Portuguese retaliation, Bahrain pled for protection from the Shah of Persia who was only too happy to oblige. Thus ousted, the Portuguese spent another 80 years attempting to regain their control over the island.
In 1783 Sheikh Ahmed Al-Fatih "The Conqueror" drove the Persian garrison from Bahrain and reclaimed the Al-Khalifa family’s title to the island. The Al-Khalifa family continues to rule Bahrain to this day.
In 1820 Sheikh Ahmed’s sons Abdulla and Salman, then co-rulers of Bahrain, signed a General Treaty with the British East India Company, beginning a connection to Great Britain which lasted until Bahrain’s independence in 1971. When Sheikh Salman died in 1825, a struggle for succession began. This internal strife continued with rival factions maneuvering for control of the government, and assassinations rife, for more than 40 years. During this turbulent period a "Treaty of Perpetual Peace and Friendship" was signed with the British to end maritime aggression and build better trade relations. The treaty was seen by the rival internal factions as a means to secure their own power by enlisting British aid against the other faction in the continuing struggle for control of the Bahraini government. The struggle eventually reached a head in 1869 when the exasperated British simply removed and exiled the primary rivals and proclaimed the 21 year old Sheikh Isa bin Ali Al-Khalifa the ruler of Bahrain. Sheikh Isa acted quickly and decisively to stabilize the government and, with the support of the British fleet, held off invasion by the Turks and the Persians, both of who claimed Bahrain as their own.
Sheikh Isa guided his nation into the 20th century, ruling until 1923 when his son, Sheikh Hamad, joined him as co-ruler.
The oil hidden in the sands was nothing new to the Arabs. For thousands of years they had used the surface up-welling of natural tar to caulk their dhows. In the mid-19th century, oil gained considerable value. Suddenly petroleum based oils and oil distillates could be used to lubricate and power a whole new generation of machines. Gradually the world began to search out its oil reserves.
In the late 1920’s, Standard Oil Company of California received permission from the Sheikhdom of Bahrain to exploit Bahraini oil reserves through its subsidiary, the Bahrain Petroleum Company (BAPCO). Drilling began on the first well in October 1931. On June 1, 1932, at a depth of 2,008 feet, the well hit pay dirt and the oil flowed. Its 70-ton per day natural flow was said to be an oil-man’s dream come true.
Sheikh Hamad succeeded his father in December 1932 and was succeeded by his own son, Sheikh Salman ten years later.
In 1961, Sheikh Salman passed away at his country house near West Rifa. He was succeeded by his son, Sheikh Isa bin Salman Al-Khalifa, who passed away in February of 1999. His son, His Highness Sheikh Hamad bin Isa Al-Khalifa, is the present Amir.
Militarily, Bahrain served as a British base during World War II. In the 1950’s nationalism in the region grew and in 1968 Britain announced its intention to end the treaty with the gulf states (Bahrain, Qatar and what is now the U.A.E.). On August 15 1971, the island received independence, becoming the State of Bahrain under the leadership of His Highness, the Amir.
Today Bahrain is a thriving, modern nation of over 4000,000 people. Like the nation it is part of, the capital of Manama is an international metropolis of over 100,000; a city which combines the heritage of the merchant past with the modern, glass and steel of the future. The people of Bahrain are proud of their heritage, they honor values of righteousness, valor and hospitality; the values born of the struggle for survival in the desert. They are values common to the cultures of both America and Bahrain.
Oil remains Bahrain’s primary export commodity having supplanted the pearling industry. Rising oil prices in the 1970’s, which gave added wealth to all oil producing nations, have settled out forcing some slow-downs on government planned improvements.
The Bahraini government maintains its considerable foresight in planning. Bahrain has long billed itself as the Gulf’s "oil poor" neighbor. The Bahraini oil reserves are small and by all estimates will not last out the decade. The government, anticipating the day when the oil will be gone, has diversified its investments, stimulating banking and financial interests, major multinational corporations and again making the island nation of Bahrain, as in millennia past, a vital center of world trade.
Bahraini Traditions and Etiquette
TRADITIONS
"To know a country is to know its’ people"
In the harsh, arid desert, a man alone soon dies. Life is possible only with the help and support of others; and at that it is often a struggle just to carry on. This environment of the Middle East has been a contributing factor in the development of closely-knit extended families, each member dependent on the others for his or her survival; and it refined the need for hospitality, for without the support of a group, the individual alone will surely die in the desert.
In the Middle East, a person’s first duty is to his extended family, parents, grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, even distant kinsmen. Community and country come only after the needs of the family. For this reason, any needy person who has relatives, no matter how remotely connected, can be sure of food and ter. When sons marry, they often continue to live at home or in an adjacent home. Consequently, it is not unusual for several generations to live together or in a very close proximity.
The extended family is usually headed by the oldest male. Together, the extended family traditionally shares the responsibility for the actions of each of its members. Family enterprises and skills are often handed down from generation to generation. As elsewhere in the world, social patterns are changing, especially in the cities. Families are becoming more scattered but the bonds remain very strong.
These dual traditions of the extended family and of generous hospitality have been carried down through generations of Middle Easterners. The Bahraini people inherited this culture, strongly influenced by their desert ancestry. In Bahrain, and throughout the Middle East, the extended family is a closely knit group. The ties are much tighter and deeper than those same ties generally are in most American families.
Similarly, hospitality is a byword among Bahrainis, whatever their station in life. When they say, as they often do, "my home is your home," they mean it. As a guest in their homes, you will be treated to the kindest and most lavish consideration, but do not be surprised if family members come first when being served, greeted, or introduced. You may even seem to move backward in a serving line. Such is the tremendous importance of extended family, an important cultural difference to understand.
The Tradition of Marriage
The Holy Koran permits a man to have up to four wives, but only if he is capable of treating them all equally in every way. Not surprisingly, that is a difficult condition to meet. As a consequence, polygamy is a declining practice today throughout the Middle East. If asked, most Muslims will cheerfully admit that they cannot afford more than one wife.
"Among my followers," said Mohammed, "The best of men are they who are best to their wives; the best of women are they who are best to their husbands."
A Muslim woman cannot legally be forced to marry. In certain circumstances, she can obtain a divorce from her husband through the courts, but only in exceptional cases.
Islam does not permit a Muslim woman to marry a non-Muslim, although Muslim men may marry women of other faiths. The non-Muslim wife of a Muslim may keep her religion, but the children of such a marriage must be brought up as Muslims and they are considered the father’s children, not the mother’s.
Muslim women inherit a fixed amount of the family estates and are free to control their own private wealth. Protected traditionally from association with men outside their own family circles, Muslim women are gradually being permitted to fill a greater role in society, especially in the larger cities and among the better educated.
Bahraini Etiquette:
A foreign visitor should prepare himself to shake hands frequently, perhaps several times a day with the same person. It is important to know that the handshake in the Middle East is generally a light clasp of the fingers and can be held until the extended greetings are complete.
You will also find that conversations are held at much closer distances than you may be used to. In the U.S. people tend to stand several feet apart when they talk to one another. In the Middle East, people in conversation stand closer together. You may find yourself backing away while the person you are speaking to steps closer and closer. Though you may be somewhat uncomfortable until you are used to this custom, it is polite to hold your ground.
The familiar clash on the back or shoulder is not the custom in Bahrain and is better avoided. People might take offense if you strike, push, or jostle them.
Bahrainis are exceptionally courteous and exchange a variety of polite phrases of greeting, good wishes, and farewell. Learning a few of these polite phrases in Arabic will do wonders. Such courtesy will always be appreciated, and everyone is complimented.
Throughout the Middle East the financial burden lies with the host. If you invite someone to lunch or dinner, you should be prepared to "pick up the tab." The concept of separated checks or "going dutch" is very uncommon in the Middle East.
When invited to a Bahraini’s Home:
Bahrainis are very worldly. When you and your family are invited to a Bahraini’s home, you may find yourselves in the traditional setting or in a completely familiar western setting. Whatever the case, as guests of a Bahraini family, you will enjoy the finest they have to offer. A tempting array of dishes - perhaps roast lamb, fish, chicken; mounds of spiced rice, savory sauces, fruits, and desserts. Feel free to take second helpings. It is not only permissible, but your host will consider it a compliment if you do.
Traditionally the host will assign the places to sit, and hand shaking is quite proper upon entering, and is optional upon leaving. Offers of peace and polite small-talk generally comprise the greeting. Do not be surprised if you host does not introduce his wife and daughters. In a traditional setting, women often remain separate. It is polite to inquire about the health or welfare of the "family" rather than directly about female members of the family.
There is an old custom in the Middle East that an object admired by a guest becomes a gift. It is a good idea to be careful with your admiration as your host may feel compelled to give you the object either on the spot or by delivering it to you later.
It is the province of the host to open the subject or topic of conversation. As a guest, a westerner may or may not be required to remove his shoes. All the diners remain seated until the host rises.
As mentioned earlier, it is impolite to use the left hand to eat or when offering, passing, or receiving anything. Also, it is impolite to speak of anything regarded as unclean by a Muslim. Accordingly, dogs, pigs, shoes, or the mention of anything in-elegant, such as a donkey, garbage, etc., would be considered improper topics for conversation and should be avoided.
Bahrain is a tea and coffee drinking country. Coffee is placed in copper coffee pots and often flavored with the spice cardamom. The Bahrainis drink it slowly, savoring the rich aroma and flavor. The coffee is served in small cups, slightly larger than a demitasse. The strength of the coffee varies.
Hospitality requires that coffee be served to a guest on all occasions. When it is offered, it must be accepted. The third cup is the extreme limit. Refuse the forth cup by shaking the cup horizontally form side-to-side.
Heavily sweetened tea with cream, called "chia" (pronounced "shy"), is another traditional Middle Eastern drink. The sweet tea may also be clear with a sprig of fresh mint. It is polite to accept one or two glasses of tea. The glasses are very small. Tea is almost always served hot. Iced tea is a rarity.
TABOOS
At Prayer time. During prayer time you will occasionally see people in public engaged in prayer. As mentioned earlier, a Muslim engaged in "salat" may be standing, kneeling, or prostrate. If you must pass a person who is praying. It is courteous to pass behind or by the feet of the worshiper.
Conversation: According to Arab custom it is the host’s privilege to set the topic of conversation. Also, the Arabic is poetic and pleasant to listen to. Taking time to enjoy a conversation is a tradition which has resulted, thus, when speaking with an Arab, it is considered impolite to appear impatient or in haste. Doing so means you don’t care about the person or you can’t control yourself. Most conversations start with a wish for peace, (Asalamu Al-Akum) and proceed to small talk, "how are you?" and "How is your family?" before getting down to the business at hand.
Politics and religion are best left alone. Generally Arabs will not debate the Islamic religion, though many are happy to explain their religion to non-Muslims who are genuinely interested. If, while you’re talking, an Arab changes the subject or appears uncomfortable, then it’s a good idea to follow the lead and talk about something else.
The Sole of the foot: Life the left hand, the sole of the foot is considered unclean because it touches the ground. It is considered impolite to point the sole of the foot at an Arab when sitting together. This does not mean that when sitting people cannot cross their legs. The custom is more applicable when sitting on cushions or mats at a traditional Arabic feast. Then, if seated with legs extended, the soles of the feet could point at another guest and cause insult. Generally, Arabs kneel or sit cross-legged at traditional dinners.
Right hand/left hand: In most Arab countries, the left hand is considered "unclean" and is not put forward (an important thing for al "south-paws" to know.) The left hand earned this interesting epithet in the harsh desert, a land of few trees and no paper. It was the custom to eat, shake hands, wave a greeting, all with the right hand while the left hand was reserved for certain "hygienic functions" or blowing the nose. (The left hand was cleaned by rubbing in the sand). For some desert nomads, this is still the way of things. Traditionally at meals the left hand is kept hidden in the folds of the robe.
Today it is extremely impolite to offer the left hand for a hand shake or to wave a greeting as this implies rubbing the "unhygienic residue" of the left hand on the person being waved to. Similarly, it is impolite to pass food or eat with the left hand. When eating and drinking, use your right hand. Use your right hand also when you pass, offer or receive anything. As an interesting note, throughout the tales of the "1,000 and One Arabian Nights" enemies are referred to as "They of the Left Hand."
Affection in Public: In most Arab countries, holding hands, kissing, walking arm-in-arm, and even flirting between men and women in public (even between husband and wife), is strictly TABOO! In Bahrain such behavior generally results in "dirty looks" from passersby. In some countries within this theater of operations, such behavior can result in arrest and imprisonment.
Conversely, holding hands, kissing, and walking arm-in-arm, between Arab men, is considered perfectly acceptable behavior. While there may be "something more" to it, such activities are generally little more than signs of friendship (much as the kiss on the cheek in France.)
Hand Gestures: By and large Bahrain is cosmopolitan enough that most of its inhabitants have been exposed to Western ways. Still, there are several hand gestures used in the U.S. which could have a different meaning if used in the Middle East. There are the "thumbs up", "peace (or victory), and the "okay" signs.
Thumbs up, meaning "everything is great" or "I’m Okay" to the West can be equated to the "middle finger" by Middle Easterners. Of note, hitch-hikers do not "thumb a ride", rather they hold their hand horizontal to the road and wave it up and down as though telling motorists to "reduce *****sss".
Peace or the victory sign is generally understood when the pads of the fingers are pointed away form the person making the sign (in other words, palm out.) When the sign is made with the knuckles facing away from the person making the sign (palm in) the sign may be taken for a "devil sign" or "the middle finger extended."
Okay, the circle made with the thumb and index finger, the other three fingers extended can be misunderstood to be the sign of "the evil eye"
Finally , it is interesting to compare the way Americans and Arabs count on their fingers (as a trivial example of how our cultures differ). Generally, Americans start with the index finger calling it "one". Two, three, and four are the remaining fingers, with the thumb popping up last as number five. Arabs generally start with the "pinky" finger as number "one" counting down through the fingers until the thumb again is five.
Pork and Pork Products: the Koran forbids Muslims to touch or eat pork or the products of swine. It is possible that this originated in an effort to protect people from contracting diseases that resulted from eating tainted or contaminated pork products.
Many food products available in the Middle East today carry the disclaimer "certified free of pig products". This is an important consideration if you host a Bahraini family for a meal.
Photography: Many Muslims Don’t like to be photographed. If you really want that picture to remember the interesting local fashions, ask before you photograph. Photographing a person without asking first is considered very offensive. Generally just raising your camera will be enough to be sure, If people in the background "scurry and dodge" to get away, it'’ a good idea to wait.
Bahrain does not permit photography in some areas. Don’t take pictures of military installations, equipment, police officials, airports or sea ports (unless you have permission from someone in authority). Joe Dokes, the pier sentry doesn’t cut it as "someone in authority", by the way.
Islam
THE RELIGION
The predominant religion of the Bahraini’s (and in most of the Middle East) is Islam. It is a religion with nearly 800 million followers throughout the world, about 1/5 of the world’s population.
The work "Islam" is Arabic and means "Submission to God". People who follow the Islamic religion are called "Muslims" which is also Arabic and means "Those who submit".
Many Muslims view Christians and Jews, not as enemies, but as people who have yet to recognize Mohammed and move up to the next stage of belief, Islam. This might be equated to the Mormon belief that Joseph Smith is one of god’s prophets and his teachings are a higher plane of belief.
Islam does not have "churches" per se, rather holy places where the faithful may pray to God. These buildings are called Mosques. Because part of a Muslim’s duty is to pray five times each day, it would be very difficult to stop all work, find the nearest church (in the Christian sense), pray, and go back to his place of work. For this reason, Mosques are plentiful. Thus people may express their devotion to god, without spending a disproportionate amount of time finding a place to do so.
Mosques, like most holy places, are generally built on a specific pattern. Most recognizable are their tall spire-like structures called "minarets." In ancient times, the "muezzin," "men who call the faithful to prayer) sand the call to prayer from the tops of the minarets five times each day. Modern technology has largely replaced the muezzin today in the form of electronic speakers and sometimes tape recordings.
While Islam does not restrict mosques to Muslims only, in deference to regional sensitivities, the military precludes non-Muslim personnel from entering them with the exception of the Grand Mosque. Photography is normally not permitted within a Mosque (Grand Mosque excepted) and if you and your family are Muslim, you are welcome to enter and pray in accordance with the Koran.
MAJOR ISLAMIC BELIEFS
There are six basic tenants of Islam. These are: one God, God’s Prophets, Sacred Books, Man’s relations with God, Angels and other spirits, and the Day of Judgement.
One God: Islam is a monotheistic religion, there is only God. This is stated on every occasion of worship with the phrase: "There is not God, but Allah." The work "Allah" is Arabic for God. God created everything that "is". Because God is omnipotent, thanks, praise, and obedience should be given to God alone.
God’s Prophets: Muslims believe that God speaks through Prophets here on Earth. The first of God’s prophets was Adam and the last was Mohammed. Contrary to popular belief, Islam does not deny the existence of Jesus Christ. Muslims recognize Jesus as one of five major prophets (just as Hebrews revere Jesus as a Rabbi) but not as the Son of God. Abraham, Moses, David, and of course, Mohammed, believed to be the last prophet, are also considered Major Prophets. While the prophets transmit the word of god, they themselves are not considered divine. As an interesting side-note, Jesus Christ is mentioned many times in the Koran while Mohammed is mentioned only twice.
Sacred Books: the Islamic holy book is called the Koran and is the written word of God (Allah) as revealed in Arabic to the Prophet Mohammed by the Angel Gabriel. Just as Jesus did not write of his life on Earth (that testament was left to the gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John), so the Koran was not written by Mohammed, rather by his followers, some years after his death.
As it reflects the word of God, Muslims consider the Koran complete and unflawed; thus a great deal of Arab culture revolves around the word of god as revealed in the Koran.
Muslims also believe God gave four other sacred scriptures to man. These scriptures include: the scrolls given to Abraham, the Jewish Torah, the Psalms of David, and the gospels according to Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.
Man’s Relations With God: Muslims believe that man occupies the most honored place in all creation. They do not believe in the original sin, rather that Adam and Eve together, touched a tree which God had forbidden them to touch, sinned equally, repented, and were forgiven for their sin of disobedience. Knowledge and the pursuit of knowledge is desirable and good. Man alone among the animals has the power to make moral choices and to respond consciously to God’s will.
Angels and Other Spirits: Muslims believe in a spiritual world as well as the real world here on Earth. The spiritual world is inhabited by Angels and by other spirits (often referred to as Jinn"). Angels are God’s messengers, they carry his word to man, much as the archangel Gabriel carried god’s words to Mohammed. The other spirits, Jinn, may be either helpful or harmful to humans.
The Day of Judgement: Just as the Book of Revelations tells about the coming of the day of judgement, so the Koran tells Muslims of a day when every soul will be judged. At this judgement, sometimes called the Day of Resurrection, souls wil be judged and assigned to their place in heaven or hell dependent on their works during life.
BRANCHES OF ISLAM
When the Prophet Mohammed died without sons in 632 AD, he left his followers without a leader or successor. Mohammed’s son-in-law (and cousin) Ali proclaimed himself the Caliph (the leader of both religious and secular affairs) by right of descent from the line of Mohammed. The followers of Ali, those who believed that the Caliphate was a right of descent, were called Shiat-Ali (meaning Partisans of Ali) though the same was later shortened to "Shi’ites".
A second group of Muslims, the Sunnis, believed the Caliph should be chosen for his own merit, such as intelligence, ability to lead and defend the faithful, and his knowledge of Islam. Thus, the Sunnis opposed the right of descent, and supported Mohammed’s friend Abu Bakr, the general who led the Muslim army to capture Mecca.
Through the Shi’ites claimed that Mohammed had designated Ali as his successor, historians dispute the claim. Had the Prophet done so, the people would have accepted his wishes without question. Understandably, with no successor named and without a male heir, a power struggle between the two factions ensued.
The Sunnis prevailed and Abu Bakr was elected Caliph. The Shi’ite faction refused to give up and continued the struggle until, after three unsuccessful campaigns, Ali was finally named Caliph in 655 AD.
Ali was considered an indecisive and ineffectual leader who was outmaneuvered by the Umayyad family who replaced him with Muawiyah and moved the Caliphate from Medina to Damascus. When Ali was assassinated in 661 AD his first-born son, Hasan, refused the Caliphate in favor of his younger brother, Ali’s second son, Hussein. Hussein raised an army to challenge the Umayyad caliphate. On the tenth day of the month of Muharram (first month of the Islamic year) in the year 680 AD, Hussein and his forces and members of his Hashemite family went to war against Caliph Yazid. Hussein and his Shi’a forces met the Caliph’s army outside the Iraqi city of Karbela where they were resoundingly defeated. The Shi’ites claim Hussein, himself, was the last man to die in the battle, which claimed the lives of his two nephews and his own five year-old son. Shi’a hopes for a hereditary succession died with him but the Shi’ite sect did not.
Today approximately 85 percent of all Muslims are Sunnis with the remaining 15 percent Shi’ite. Sunni beliefs continue to follow the "sunna" or "path of the Prophet," focusing on Mohammed’s words and actions as a guide to proper life and conduct.
Shi’ites, on the other hand, believe in the spiritual leader, or Imam, who is divinely inspired, thus the spiritual descendent of Mohammed. They believe in the Imam as a religious leader, selected by God; while the Caliph is the secular leader, chosen as a defender of the faithful and enforcer of god’s law (the Sharia).
TEN DAYS IN MUHARRAM - ASHURA
The Muslim festival of "Ashura" falls on the day that is the alent to the 10th of Muharram. This Shi’ite festival commemorates the battle between Hussein and Caliph Yazid.
Bahrain is one of the few remaining sites where, each year on the 10th of Muharram, Shi’ite Muslims can gather to mourn the death of Hussein and religiously atone for his defeat. The occasion also serves an opportunity for Shi’ite Muslims to restate the importance of the family as the center of their faith. For nine days preceding the drama and procession known as "Ashura", the Shi’ite faithful (about 60 percent of Bahrain’s population) gather in their villages to hear stories of Hussein and other Muslim heroes, and to prepare for the festival. In the late evenings, they come to Manama and march to the main Shi’a mosque. Beating their chests with their cupped hands and forearms, the worshipers add to the already mournful sounds of their music and chanting as they prepare for the final ceremony.
On the evening before, and on the morning of, the 10th of Muharram, thousands of Shi’ite Muslims will again be procession on the streets of downtown Manama. On this day, from about 0830 until about 1400, Shi’a men will march in their village groups through Manama, beating their chest, but also now flagellating their backs with copper chains and striking and cutting their foreheads with swords. Various symbols of the Battles of Karbela are carried along with models of the tombs of Ali and his sons, Hasan and Hussein, thus creating a dance-line and a dramatic re-enactment of an intensely personal and religious event for Shi’ite Muslims.
Non-Muslims should avoid Manama at this time. If, however, you find yourself in a position to view the festival you should do it from the roof or window of a home. Remember, however, that any non-Muslim is an outsider and that the worshipers will be in a highly emotional state. Any gesture which could be construed by the faithful as being disrespectful may result in serious trouble. Picture taking is absolutely forbidden.
RAMADAN
Ramadan is the ninth month of the Muslim lunar year and is a month of fasting as required by "siyam". During the holy month of Ramadan, Muslims are required to abstain from food, drink, smoking, , and any other bodily gratification from pre-dawn to sunset. Children, those who are ill, persons engaged in the rigors of travel, pregnant women, and women who are menstruating are excused from the fast, but are enjoined to make up the fast at a later time when they are more able.
Traditionally, the fast begins each day at dawn. Poetically, this time is determined when one can tell the difference between a black thread and a white thread held at arm’s length. The fast is broken at sunset, (again according to the poet, when the different colors of the threads cannot be discerned).
In Bahrain, a cannon is fired to the faithful to the arrival of dawn and the commencement of the fast. Another cannon is fired at sunset to inform the faithful that the fast can be broken.
The breading of the fast is generally a time of quiet when families gather together or join with close friends for a few hours. People retire early and arise again around 0230 or 0300, to take a second meal just before sunrise.
In some sections of Bahrain, a man will walk the streets before dawn, beating a drum to remind people to awaken and eat before the morning comes. The first call to prayer (and the cannon) then officially begin the day’s fast.
The last ten days of Ramadan are especially sacred to Muslims because it was during this period that the Prophet Mohammed began to receive the revelations from Allah (God) which resulted in the Holy Koran. During this last ten days, each Muslim is supposed to have already read 2/3 of the Koran and continue to completion, or to read the entire Koran over the 10 day period.
The end of Ramadan signals a time of festivities for all Muslims. Many cannons are fired, people dance, and friends offer each other the traditional greeting: "Eid Mubarak," (may your feast be blessed).
During the three day period of Eid Al-Fatr. It is appropriate to send "Eid Mubarak" cards to you Muslim friends. Such cards are much akin to Christmas cards.
Ramadan, which is similar in many ways to the Christian Lent, helps to remind a Muslim of his dependence upon god and lends a sense of unity to the Muslim community. It is obvious, therefore, that we should respect this tradition and do nothing which might cause offense- such as eating, drinking, chewing gum, or smoking in public.
Because a Muslim man or woman must work a full day without a bite to eat or a drink of water, Ramadan can be especially tiring. You should be particularly careful to deal sensitively with whatever everyday problems or inconveniences arise.
FIVE PILLARS OF THE ISLAMIC FAITH
There are five "pillars" which are considered the foundations of the Islamic faith. These five pillars, duties which each Muslim must perform, are: "shahadah", or confession of faith; "salat", or worship: "zakat", or wealth sharing: "siyam", or fasting: and "hajj", or pilgrimage. These five pillars are important parts of a Muslim’s life. Each must be followed just as mass and confession must be observed by a Catholic.
"Shahadah": the confession of faith, is a Muslim’s expression of his faith to God. This expression of faith is made by reciting the first lines of the Holy Koran: "There is no God, but God and Mohammed is the prophet of God." This intonation is a Muslim’s passport into the Muslim community, the essence of his faith, and his identify, all in one. Muslims repeat this confession of their faith many times daily both in prayers and for other occasions.
"Salat": worship at five set times each day is an important religious duty and is closely observed by Muslims. Muslims must perform ablution (washing of the body, preferably in running water, but at the very least symbolically) to prepare to approach God’s presence. In this same light, a prayer rug is used to insure the ground on which a Muslim worships is clean. The Salat differs from prayer in that it is "worship" of God, while "prayer" implies asking God’s blessing, His Help, His forgiveness. Accordingly, salat is a very exacting form of worship. If Muslims fail to accomplish the Salat (or to make up a missed worship) they cease to be Muslims. When performing Salat a Muslim must face Mecca, perform specific ritual stances (bowing, genuflection, prostration), and speak the worship liturgy. Salat may be done alone or in congregation all days except noon on Friday, when it must be accomplished in congregation if at all possible.
"Zakat": is the sharing of wealth. Muslims are required to give at least 2.5 percent of their assets to the poor. While zakat is akin to the ‘tithe’ of some Christian churches or making an offering to the collection plate in others, it is more. Zakat is levied as a tax that is paid by all Muslims and is used to help those less fortunate than themselves.
"Siyam": is the fast which each Muslim must make during the Holy month of Ramadan (the ninth month of the Islamic calendar). During Ramadan Muslims must not eat, drink, smoke, or have ual intercourse between dawn and sunset.
"Hajj": the pilgrimage to Mecca is a requirement each Muslim must fulfill at least once in his or her lifetime it the are able. Mecca is the birthplace of the Prophet Mohammed. As such, it is the most holy city in Islam. It is located in western Saudi Arabia and is a city open only to Muslims. The time of the pilgrimage is during the final month of the Islamic calendar year or "Dhu Al-Hijjah".
When they arrive in the vicinity of Mecca, pilgrims perform a complete ablution: replace their clothing with two white linen cloths, one for their lower body and one for the upper; and abstain from cutting their hair or finger nails from this point until their pilgrimage is completed. In this way each pilgrim is as his brother before the eyes of God, there is no distinction of class, wealth, knowledge, or piety. The pilgrimage takes several days and requires visits to the Ka’bah (the first house of worship built by Abraham) in the center of Mecca; a visit to the hills of Safa and Marwah where, at God’s command, Hagar, Abraham’s wife, sought water for her son, Ishmael; a visit to the plain of Arafat where Mohammed delivered his farewell sermon; a visit to Mina, an oasis where pilgrims throw stones at three pillars which symbolize Satan and where pilgrims make a ritual sacrifice of a goat or sheep. This feast of the sacrifice, "Eid Al-adha" is the high point of the pilgrimage. Following this, pilgrims may cut their hair and fingernails, and don their ordinary clothing. They must make a final visit to the Ka’bah and their pilgrimage is complete. Those who have completed the Hajj are held in very high esteem among their peers.
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Egypt. Greater Cairo consists of two metropolitan governorates (local government administrative areas): Cairo, on the east bank of the Nile; and Giza, across the river, and the river islands of Gezira and Roda. The population of Greater Cairo is about 15,000,000.
Cairo is part of the Nile Valley and Delta, one of the few parts of the country that has fertile soil and plentiful water. The Nile River divides into two channels just north of the city. Huge deserts lie east and west of the ci